Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 – 4. Retrieved November 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Development of the critical incident technique (CIT) as well as its principles and present status are being explained. From its very armed force beginning till current days, the critical incident technique has been used in different fields. The technique follows some steps which consist of establishment of general aims, planning, collection, analysis and interpretation of data with a final report. The CIT is useful in many aspects. It can be used for measuring a typical performance and/or proficiency, when having training problems, when selecting or classifying, when collecting data on success or failure in operating procedures, when improving the design of equipment, among others.
sábado, 12 de diciembre de 2009
World without End
World without end by Follet, Ken (2007) invites readers to enjoy a story about the old times written by a contemporary. Follet (2007)’s descriptions introduce ourselves into a world of love, hate, loyalty, friendship, treachery, hope and despair. However, this saga would have been easier to read if Follet (2007) had not given such a huge importance to the detailed descriptions. For example, when describing a door that was being carved, he used these words:
“She looked at the carving. There were five virgins on each side of the door, the wise ones feasting at the wedding, and the foolish ones outside, holding their lamps upside down to show that they were empty of oil. Merthin had copied the design of the old door, but with subtle changes. The virgins stood in rows, five on one side and five on the other, like the arches in the cathedral; but, in the new door, they were not exactly alike. Merthin had given each girl a sign of individuality. One was pretty, another had curly hair, one wept, another closed one eye in a mischievous wink. He had made them real, and the scene on the old door now looked stiff and lifeless by comparison” (Follet, 2007, p. 82)
Rather more significant is the technique in which the author describes characters’ intimacy. Here and again, there are many more details than necessary.
To conclude, despite the possible overuse of detailed descriptions, this book is worth to be read. I recommend it.
References
Follet, K. (2007) World without End. Oxford: UK. Macmillan
“She looked at the carving. There were five virgins on each side of the door, the wise ones feasting at the wedding, and the foolish ones outside, holding their lamps upside down to show that they were empty of oil. Merthin had copied the design of the old door, but with subtle changes. The virgins stood in rows, five on one side and five on the other, like the arches in the cathedral; but, in the new door, they were not exactly alike. Merthin had given each girl a sign of individuality. One was pretty, another had curly hair, one wept, another closed one eye in a mischievous wink. He had made them real, and the scene on the old door now looked stiff and lifeless by comparison” (Follet, 2007, p. 82)
Rather more significant is the technique in which the author describes characters’ intimacy. Here and again, there are many more details than necessary.
To conclude, despite the possible overuse of detailed descriptions, this book is worth to be read. I recommend it.
References
Follet, K. (2007) World without End. Oxford: UK. Macmillan
A summary of summaries
Summaries are important tool but they follow special aspects. The aim of this article is to analyze a summary. The start point will consist on an analysis of a summary done by a student, in which connectors have an important role. Then, the focus will shift to the effectiveness of this previously mentioned summary and the points that are confusing or incomplete. Finally, examples of summaries will give the article a final closure.
Examining a summary about summaries done by a student is the first point to consider. In the following example there is an introductory phrase which is underlined and an easily identifiable body in the second and last paragraph. However, there is not conclusion in this summary.
In her book “The Process of Paragraph Writing”, Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary. The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience.
However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main idea but you also have to be capable of expressing these ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced. That is to say, the reader should not find in difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
Fig. 1
This academic summary since is a description of academic – related topic (Reid, 1994). According to Reid (1994) academic summaries respect certain structural rules such as text organization. Every academic summary should have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Consequently, this summary has not respected this structural rule since it counts with an introduction and body but it lacks of an objective conclusion.
Bodies are made up of the main ideas of the original in the same order they appear and they can include connectors. As in the example done by the student, connectors, which have been circled, help the reader to link the ideas. A summary should not be just a group of disconnected sentences but a cohesive and coherent piece of writing.
This academic summary presents same confusing or incomplete ideas. From them some questions and doubts can be developed:
- Does the author, Reid (1994) in this case, claim that the only purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific purpose?
- The author writes “trying to avoid repeating the exact phrase from the original material”. Does it mean that it is not possible to quote or cite a source?
Last of all, examples of summaries are presented. The sentences in the following lines are summaries of different paragraphs selected. When producing them, the audience was specified and this consisted of readers who have not read the original the text previously. So, the aim is to be clear, specific, neutral and balanced enough to allow reader to understand the main idea.
A summary is a brief description of a main idea with a specific purpose and audience. (Pintos 2008, p. 15, par. 1)
Academic summaries, which are about an academic topic, present a structure as in any text where the introduction includes certain detailed information while the body develops the main ideas. (Pintos 2008, p. 15, par. 4)
The first sentence in a summary is composed of the source and the main idea. (Pintos 2008, p. 17, par 1)
References:
Reid, J. (1994). The Process of Paragraph Writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic Writing. Argentina. Universidad CAECE
Examining a summary about summaries done by a student is the first point to consider. In the following example there is an introductory phrase which is underlined and an easily identifiable body in the second and last paragraph. However, there is not conclusion in this summary.
In her book “The Process of Paragraph Writing”, Reid (1994) describes the main characteristics of a summary. The author claims that the general purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific audience.
However, summary writing is not an easy task. In order to write an accurate summary, you not only have to extract the main idea but you also have to be capable of expressing these ideas, trying to avoid repeating the exact phrases of the original material. Moreover, good summaries are clear and balanced. That is to say, the reader should not find in difficulties in understanding the main ideas of the material.
Fig. 1
This academic summary since is a description of academic – related topic (Reid, 1994). According to Reid (1994) academic summaries respect certain structural rules such as text organization. Every academic summary should have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Consequently, this summary has not respected this structural rule since it counts with an introduction and body but it lacks of an objective conclusion.
Bodies are made up of the main ideas of the original in the same order they appear and they can include connectors. As in the example done by the student, connectors, which have been circled, help the reader to link the ideas. A summary should not be just a group of disconnected sentences but a cohesive and coherent piece of writing.
This academic summary presents same confusing or incomplete ideas. From them some questions and doubts can be developed:
- Does the author, Reid (1994) in this case, claim that the only purpose of a summary is to give a limited amount of information to a specific purpose?
- The author writes “trying to avoid repeating the exact phrase from the original material”. Does it mean that it is not possible to quote or cite a source?
Last of all, examples of summaries are presented. The sentences in the following lines are summaries of different paragraphs selected. When producing them, the audience was specified and this consisted of readers who have not read the original the text previously. So, the aim is to be clear, specific, neutral and balanced enough to allow reader to understand the main idea.
A summary is a brief description of a main idea with a specific purpose and audience. (Pintos 2008, p. 15, par. 1)
Academic summaries, which are about an academic topic, present a structure as in any text where the introduction includes certain detailed information while the body develops the main ideas. (Pintos 2008, p. 15, par. 4)
The first sentence in a summary is composed of the source and the main idea. (Pintos 2008, p. 17, par 1)
References:
Reid, J. (1994). The Process of Paragraph Writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic Writing. Argentina. Universidad CAECE
Steve Jobs’ Commencement Speech at Stanford University
Steve Jobs (2005) gave a commencement speech at Stanford University. While narrating three stories from his life, Steve (2005) exposed the importance of having faith in what we do and finding a job, a career that we love to do. Steve (2005) proclaimed that “[y]our work is going to fill a large part of your life, and the only way to be truly satisfied is to do what you believe is great work” (Steve J. 2005) The speech also involved the significance of valuing your time and intuition.
References:
Steve J. Stanford Commencement Speech 2005 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
References:
Steve J. Stanford Commencement Speech 2005 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1R-jKKp3NA
What makes a good professional in Education?
What tools are required to be a good professional in education? Many students and teachers will answer that having the knowledge of the subject being taught is the key component. I would have said that too when being a student at collegue. However, after many years of instruction about teaching, I dare to claim that this idea is restricted. Teachers have qualities that go far beyond that simple condition. They are thought to be decision–makers who analyze the atmosphere of the classroom, conflicts or incidents and students’ needs and difficulties.
A teacher’s professional development does not finish when graduating. Experience provides them with a variety of resources that are of a great help and importance. Unexpected changes in the lesson, questions which are not supposed to be asked by students, lack of material, technical problems and misunderstandings are only some of the incidents that a teacher can face. Because of that, teachers need a special training in dealing with incidents.
Fernandez, Elórtegui Escartín & Medina Perez (2003) proposes a technique to analyze and provide solutions for these unusual or unpleasant circumstances in teaching. According to him, a critical incident is a structural strategy in which teachers are presented with written teaching situations and are asked to make a decision according to the information proposed. The decision taken from these lab situations will serve of background when experiencing a similar one in the real life. In our practise, it is a fact that the experiences and decisions taken by other partners are of a much help. It is common to share our problems with colleagues. This action helps us in oncoming real circumstances, since we have been previously given the opportunity to think about possible solutions.
According to Fernandez , Elórtegui Escartín & Medina Perez (2003), the Critical Incident Technique is structured in the following way:
a) The context in which they happen.
b) Description of the problem.
c) Possible causes that explain what happened.
d) The best solutions for the problem presented.
When analyzing incidents, it is really important to know the conditions as well as the possible causes under which it happens, since the solution will be determined according to them. We, as teachers, know that a problem can differ from group to group, from age to age and from student to student.
To sum up, being a good professional in Education does not only involve having a great knowledge about the subject. As it was explained before, it also includes the ability to analyze a variety of aspects that occur in the classroom which provide teachers with tools to improve their practice. In spite of the negative side of incidents, their analysis confers teachers with a great knowledge. Because of that, a good professional should also have a wide practise in using the critical incident technique.
References
Fernandez, G. (2003). Los incidents criticos en la formacion y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formacion de Profesorado, 17 -001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved Ocotber, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
A teacher’s professional development does not finish when graduating. Experience provides them with a variety of resources that are of a great help and importance. Unexpected changes in the lesson, questions which are not supposed to be asked by students, lack of material, technical problems and misunderstandings are only some of the incidents that a teacher can face. Because of that, teachers need a special training in dealing with incidents.
Fernandez, Elórtegui Escartín & Medina Perez (2003) proposes a technique to analyze and provide solutions for these unusual or unpleasant circumstances in teaching. According to him, a critical incident is a structural strategy in which teachers are presented with written teaching situations and are asked to make a decision according to the information proposed. The decision taken from these lab situations will serve of background when experiencing a similar one in the real life. In our practise, it is a fact that the experiences and decisions taken by other partners are of a much help. It is common to share our problems with colleagues. This action helps us in oncoming real circumstances, since we have been previously given the opportunity to think about possible solutions.
According to Fernandez , Elórtegui Escartín & Medina Perez (2003), the Critical Incident Technique is structured in the following way:
a) The context in which they happen.
b) Description of the problem.
c) Possible causes that explain what happened.
d) The best solutions for the problem presented.
When analyzing incidents, it is really important to know the conditions as well as the possible causes under which it happens, since the solution will be determined according to them. We, as teachers, know that a problem can differ from group to group, from age to age and from student to student.
To sum up, being a good professional in Education does not only involve having a great knowledge about the subject. As it was explained before, it also includes the ability to analyze a variety of aspects that occur in the classroom which provide teachers with tools to improve their practice. In spite of the negative side of incidents, their analysis confers teachers with a great knowledge. Because of that, a good professional should also have a wide practise in using the critical incident technique.
References
Fernandez, G. (2003). Los incidents criticos en la formacion y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista universitaria de Formacion de Profesorado, 17 -001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved Ocotber, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
The Critical Incident Technique: More than a simple tool for reflection.
When solving problems related to our practical life, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is a useful tool. Apart from that, this technique, based on direct observations, gives the opportunity to develop psychological principles.
As it name shows, the CIT analyses incidents that as Flanagan (1954) defined, they are any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act. However, these incidents should have a special quality; they must be critical which means that the action has clear purposes or intentions.
Previously mentioned, the CIT consists on a series of observations. Nevertheless, these observations must share a crucial condition: objectivity. This term implies that observers are supposed to give explanations that are grounded on the same realizations.
As regards the procedures followed when applying the CIT, they do not imply following a rigid set of rules. In Flanagan (1954)’s words, “It should be emphasized that the critical incident technique does not consist of a single rigid set of rules governing such data collection. Rather it should be thought of a flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand.” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 9) Yet, there is a fundamental step that will define the orientation of critical incident analysis: the clarity of the general aims or expected accomplishments. As Flanagan (1954) explained:
“It is clearly impossible to report that a person has been either effective or ineffective in a particular activity by performing a specific act unless we know what he is expected to accomplish.” (p. 10)
General aims are formulated by the authorities specialized on the field being studied and participants. A simple statement is firstly produced by the authorities and afterwards, when participants agree with it, a general aim has been achieved.
Following the establishment of a general aim, observers as well as the group to be studied, should receive clear and specific training. This training does not only involve the instruction as regards the general aims but also about the rules they would confront. As Flanagan (1954) proposed “[…] rules [must] be clear and specific.” (p. 12)
When following all the steps described above, the critical incident technique will be ample for the first contact with the activity and for the approximation to the general aim. This shows its importance; the CIT is a functional tool for collecting data. Still, it is not easy to find the right procedure for different situations. Conventionally, four procedures have been used and they will be explain briefly, using Flanagan (1954)’s words.
“a. Interviews: The use of trained personnel to explain to observers precisely what data is desired and to record the incidents, making sure that all necessary details are supplied, is probably the most satisfactory data collection procedure […]
b. Group interviews: Because of the cost in time and personnel of the individual interview, a group interview technique has been developed. This retains the advantages of the individual interview in regard to the personal contact, and availability of the interviewer to answer questions […]
c. Questionnaires: If the group becomes larger, the group interview procedure is more in the nature of a questionnaire procedure […]
d. Record forms: One other procedure for collecting data is means of written records. There are two varieties of recording: one is to record details of incidents as they happen […]” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 16 – 18)
Taking into account the procedures explained before and education, all the procedures are important. It will depend on the size of the group and the aim of the research. Interviews and group interview as well as questionnaires are widely used in education. They are practical and the teacher can guide the collection of data.
After the collection of data, an analysis of that information is required. This stage has a simple purpose, which is summarizing and describing the data collected because of that it can be used for practical purposes.
The Critical Incident Technique can be applied in a variety of situations, such as measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, selection and classification, equipment design and operating procedures. In this last situation, operating procedures, the use of the CIT has an advantage. “[…] detailed factual data on successes and failures that can be systematically analyzed are of great importance in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of operations. Such information can be efficiently collected by means of the critical incident technique.” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 28) As regards the use of the CIT in improving equipment design, it can be seem in the everyday life of our schools. Every time that we carry on an analysis of our critical incidents, it is possible that the material used changes. For example, after analyzing and discovering that a text book is not a suitable one for the course, it is likely that the teacher modifies that reality by changing the textbook.
To conclude, the CIT might contribute in the study of motivation and leadership since by interviews or questionnaires and the other procedures; it can be possible to find out the interests, strength and weakness in a group. After this, many deductions can be made and act on the future according to that reality.
References:
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 – 4. Retrieved October 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
As it name shows, the CIT analyses incidents that as Flanagan (1954) defined, they are any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act. However, these incidents should have a special quality; they must be critical which means that the action has clear purposes or intentions.
Previously mentioned, the CIT consists on a series of observations. Nevertheless, these observations must share a crucial condition: objectivity. This term implies that observers are supposed to give explanations that are grounded on the same realizations.
As regards the procedures followed when applying the CIT, they do not imply following a rigid set of rules. In Flanagan (1954)’s words, “It should be emphasized that the critical incident technique does not consist of a single rigid set of rules governing such data collection. Rather it should be thought of a flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand.” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 9) Yet, there is a fundamental step that will define the orientation of critical incident analysis: the clarity of the general aims or expected accomplishments. As Flanagan (1954) explained:
“It is clearly impossible to report that a person has been either effective or ineffective in a particular activity by performing a specific act unless we know what he is expected to accomplish.” (p. 10)
General aims are formulated by the authorities specialized on the field being studied and participants. A simple statement is firstly produced by the authorities and afterwards, when participants agree with it, a general aim has been achieved.
Following the establishment of a general aim, observers as well as the group to be studied, should receive clear and specific training. This training does not only involve the instruction as regards the general aims but also about the rules they would confront. As Flanagan (1954) proposed “[…] rules [must] be clear and specific.” (p. 12)
When following all the steps described above, the critical incident technique will be ample for the first contact with the activity and for the approximation to the general aim. This shows its importance; the CIT is a functional tool for collecting data. Still, it is not easy to find the right procedure for different situations. Conventionally, four procedures have been used and they will be explain briefly, using Flanagan (1954)’s words.
“a. Interviews: The use of trained personnel to explain to observers precisely what data is desired and to record the incidents, making sure that all necessary details are supplied, is probably the most satisfactory data collection procedure […]
b. Group interviews: Because of the cost in time and personnel of the individual interview, a group interview technique has been developed. This retains the advantages of the individual interview in regard to the personal contact, and availability of the interviewer to answer questions […]
c. Questionnaires: If the group becomes larger, the group interview procedure is more in the nature of a questionnaire procedure […]
d. Record forms: One other procedure for collecting data is means of written records. There are two varieties of recording: one is to record details of incidents as they happen […]” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 16 – 18)
Taking into account the procedures explained before and education, all the procedures are important. It will depend on the size of the group and the aim of the research. Interviews and group interview as well as questionnaires are widely used in education. They are practical and the teacher can guide the collection of data.
After the collection of data, an analysis of that information is required. This stage has a simple purpose, which is summarizing and describing the data collected because of that it can be used for practical purposes.
The Critical Incident Technique can be applied in a variety of situations, such as measures of typical performance, measures of proficiency, training, selection and classification, equipment design and operating procedures. In this last situation, operating procedures, the use of the CIT has an advantage. “[…] detailed factual data on successes and failures that can be systematically analyzed are of great importance in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of operations. Such information can be efficiently collected by means of the critical incident technique.” (Flanagan, 1954, p. 28) As regards the use of the CIT in improving equipment design, it can be seem in the everyday life of our schools. Every time that we carry on an analysis of our critical incidents, it is possible that the material used changes. For example, after analyzing and discovering that a text book is not a suitable one for the course, it is likely that the teacher modifies that reality by changing the textbook.
To conclude, the CIT might contribute in the study of motivation and leadership since by interviews or questionnaires and the other procedures; it can be possible to find out the interests, strength and weakness in a group. After this, many deductions can be made and act on the future according to that reality.
References:
Flanagan, J. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51 – 4. Retrieved October 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Reading and vocabulary
Thesis: Reading comprehension and vocabulary are connected.
Purpose: to show the importance of teaching vocabulary as a skill that is connected to reading comprehension.
Audience: Linguistics, teachers and students involved in studying English for Academic Purposes.
I. Reading and Vocabulary.
A. Opinions
1. Hewings’ opinion (cited in Pintos,2009)
2. Bramki and Williams’s opinions (cited in Pintos, 2009)
3. Jordan’s opinion (cited in Pintos, 2009)
B. Vocabulary
1. Carter (1987)
2. Martin (1976)
a. The Research Approach
b. The Vocabulary of Analysis Approach
c. The Vocabulary of Evaluation Approach
C. Nutall (1997) ‘s prerequisite to Reading Comprehension
1. Brainstorming
II. Learn to write and write to learn
References
Pintos, V. (2009) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Argentina. Universidad CAECE.
Purpose: to show the importance of teaching vocabulary as a skill that is connected to reading comprehension.
Audience: Linguistics, teachers and students involved in studying English for Academic Purposes.
I. Reading and Vocabulary.
A. Opinions
1. Hewings’ opinion (cited in Pintos,2009)
2. Bramki and Williams’s opinions (cited in Pintos, 2009)
3. Jordan’s opinion (cited in Pintos, 2009)
B. Vocabulary
1. Carter (1987)
2. Martin (1976)
a. The Research Approach
b. The Vocabulary of Analysis Approach
c. The Vocabulary of Evaluation Approach
C. Nutall (1997) ‘s prerequisite to Reading Comprehension
1. Brainstorming
II. Learn to write and write to learn
References
Pintos, V. (2009) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Argentina. Universidad CAECE.
Aspects of English Academic Purposes
Purpose: to summarize information about English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
Thesis: English for Academic purposes covers different areas and purposes and it can be applied in several settings.
Audience: Teachers and students interested in EAP
I. English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
A. Definition
B. Study skills
C. Coverage
1. EAP
a. Teaching of English for no obvious reason
(1) English for general academic purposes (EGAP)
b. English for specific academic purposes (ESAP)
(1) English for occupational purposes (EOP)
(2) English for vocational purposes (EVP)
(3) English for professional purposes (EPP)
(4) English for academic purposes
II. Range of settings
A. Higher education studies
B. Pre – departure courses
1. Pre – sessional courses
2. In – sessional courses
References
Jordan, R. (1997) English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Thesis: English for Academic purposes covers different areas and purposes and it can be applied in several settings.
Audience: Teachers and students interested in EAP
I. English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
A. Definition
B. Study skills
C. Coverage
1. EAP
a. Teaching of English for no obvious reason
(1) English for general academic purposes (EGAP)
b. English for specific academic purposes (ESAP)
(1) English for occupational purposes (EOP)
(2) English for vocational purposes (EVP)
(3) English for professional purposes (EPP)
(4) English for academic purposes
II. Range of settings
A. Higher education studies
B. Pre – departure courses
1. Pre – sessional courses
2. In – sessional courses
References
Jordan, R. (1997) English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Bloor's approaches in real life
Many authors have analyzed the connection between writing and other aspects, such as reading, writing in first language (L1) and second language (L2), and the relationship between writing and vocabulary. Paying a special attention to the connection between writing and reading, Bloor (1985) ´s claims are decisive. According to him, reading in academic contexts can be approached in at least by four different techniques. In real life there are different indicators that reflect these approaches.
The first approach mentioned by Bloor (1985) is the psychological approach, in which students practise the processes involved in reading. This approach can be developed through many different activities in the classroom; all of them are related to the recognition of simple words and their interpretation. Looking for a specific word in a text according to the definitions given is a clear example.
In the linguistic approach, the aim is to draw students’ attention to the words and sentences in the text. Under this approach, many activities are found and they are mainly focused on grammar. When a text is interpreted and its general meaning analyzed, the teacher generally uses the same text to present a grammar point. At that moment, this approach is generally present, since the teacher will also ask to look for more examples that show the usage of the grammatical point being studied.
There is a third approach, which is named as the content – oriented approach, where the main assumption is to give students a specific purpose for reading. Possibilities are varied. Students can read a text to check their predictions, to solve a true or false activity, to answer questions or even, to give their opinion about it. in addition, It is believed that students must always read for a specific purpose and it will not matter if the purpose is just pleasure or interest.
The pedagogical – oriented approach is the last approach described. Under this approach, the texts are chosen according to the students’ interests and experiences. In Bloor (1985) ‘s words, “[s]tudents are presented with self – access materials which they can use at their own pace” (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan 1997). When selecting the pieces of writing, students will have the chance to express their ideas in a specific situation or topic. Apart from that, it will be a great contribution to students’ motivation, if they are interested in reading the text.
In conclusion, writing is not a single process. It is connected to other aspects, such as reading, first language and second language, and vocabulary. Bloor (1985)’s four approaches for reading in academic contexts influenced the everyday routine in many classrooms. Activities presented when reading a text, are always related to one or various approaches.
References
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The first approach mentioned by Bloor (1985) is the psychological approach, in which students practise the processes involved in reading. This approach can be developed through many different activities in the classroom; all of them are related to the recognition of simple words and their interpretation. Looking for a specific word in a text according to the definitions given is a clear example.
In the linguistic approach, the aim is to draw students’ attention to the words and sentences in the text. Under this approach, many activities are found and they are mainly focused on grammar. When a text is interpreted and its general meaning analyzed, the teacher generally uses the same text to present a grammar point. At that moment, this approach is generally present, since the teacher will also ask to look for more examples that show the usage of the grammatical point being studied.
There is a third approach, which is named as the content – oriented approach, where the main assumption is to give students a specific purpose for reading. Possibilities are varied. Students can read a text to check their predictions, to solve a true or false activity, to answer questions or even, to give their opinion about it. in addition, It is believed that students must always read for a specific purpose and it will not matter if the purpose is just pleasure or interest.
The pedagogical – oriented approach is the last approach described. Under this approach, the texts are chosen according to the students’ interests and experiences. In Bloor (1985) ‘s words, “[s]tudents are presented with self – access materials which they can use at their own pace” (Bloor, 1985; as cited in Jordan 1997). When selecting the pieces of writing, students will have the chance to express their ideas in a specific situation or topic. Apart from that, it will be a great contribution to students’ motivation, if they are interested in reading the text.
In conclusion, writing is not a single process. It is connected to other aspects, such as reading, first language and second language, and vocabulary. Bloor (1985)’s four approaches for reading in academic contexts influenced the everyday routine in many classrooms. Activities presented when reading a text, are always related to one or various approaches.
References
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
lunes, 21 de septiembre de 2009
Professional Development and Teaching
Most educators assure that being a good teacher is a consequence of professional development. Howley & Howley (2005) postulate a worth for analysis paragraph in one of their articles, which shows this idea.
"Policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms across the nation (...) it would seem that the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction, and that better instruction would result in higher student achievement." (Howley & Howley, 2005, p. 1)
Analyzing this paragraph, it can be said that people authorized to make decisions and changes in the curricula and educators themselves believed that professional development improves the quality of teaching, and eventually, it upgrades students’ accomplishments.
Apart from what it has been mentioned before, discourse markers are a common feature in the article. Discourse markers can be defined as a word or a phrase that is relatively syntax-dependent, for example so, but, because, or. Concerning their function, “and” is generally used to add information or when enumerating the object or item of a list. The discourse marker “or” involves mentioning a last item in a negative sentences and/or when enunciating another option. When thinking about the marker “but”, it is clear that its function is contrasting ideas. Finally, the word “because” is used when explaining reasons.
Returning to professionalism, the authors Howley & Howley (2005) state that the data – based improvement, or in other words, the improvement of professionalism by recording and analyzing data of every day routine, is grounded in management approaches. As the word management shows, this project or plan involves getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling.
All in all, in this article professionalism is viewed as the key factor for a better instruction and students’ achievements. In order to achieve the desired goal, it is necessary that the plan or project is based in managerial approaches.
References:
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Provoding for Rural Teacher’s Professional Development. The Rural Educator. October 2007, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
"Policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms across the nation (...) it would seem that the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction, and that better instruction would result in higher student achievement." (Howley & Howley, 2005, p. 1)
Analyzing this paragraph, it can be said that people authorized to make decisions and changes in the curricula and educators themselves believed that professional development improves the quality of teaching, and eventually, it upgrades students’ accomplishments.
Apart from what it has been mentioned before, discourse markers are a common feature in the article. Discourse markers can be defined as a word or a phrase that is relatively syntax-dependent, for example so, but, because, or. Concerning their function, “and” is generally used to add information or when enumerating the object or item of a list. The discourse marker “or” involves mentioning a last item in a negative sentences and/or when enunciating another option. When thinking about the marker “but”, it is clear that its function is contrasting ideas. Finally, the word “because” is used when explaining reasons.
Returning to professionalism, the authors Howley & Howley (2005) state that the data – based improvement, or in other words, the improvement of professionalism by recording and analyzing data of every day routine, is grounded in management approaches. As the word management shows, this project or plan involves getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling.
All in all, in this article professionalism is viewed as the key factor for a better instruction and students’ achievements. In order to achieve the desired goal, it is necessary that the plan or project is based in managerial approaches.
References:
Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-Quality Teaching: Provoding for Rural Teacher’s Professional Development. The Rural Educator. October 2007, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361
sábado, 19 de septiembre de 2009
Discourse Community: Swales' Basic Criteria
A discourse community is composed of a group of experts and a large number of apprentice members (Johns, 1990; Swales, 1990), who, while being involved and participating in this membership, will acquire knowledge and achieve an expert level. (Herzberg, 1986)
But, what special characteristics must a discourse community have? Is any group of experts a discourse community? Swales (1990) answered these questions by recognizing some basic criteria, which serves to test any community and decide whether the group of people belongs to a discourse community or not.
Swales’ (1990) basic criteria points out that a discourse community should share specific interests or goals. Aims are various, for example the purposes of a course for teachers is to provide teachers with the confidence to connect their actions in the classrooms to research – informed practices and to make them aware of the importance of a collaborative culture (Mclaughin &Talbert, 1993; Regan-Smith, 1994), in other words, learn from one another.
The second and third aspects that a community must share are a participatory mechanism and information exchange. In UCLA community, where a scholarship of teachers is sought, the publication and research as well as the engagement in sharing and applying information are crucial mechanism for the acquisition of the goal. This community defines publications as the main genre, or the community specific genre, which is the fourth aspect that Swales (1990) presents.
As regards the fifth and sixth aspects, members should use highly specialized terminology, what shows their high general level of expertise. Firstly, as it is explained in the open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators (Community College Review, Summer, 2001 by Christine Kelly-Kleese), the community college adopts language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community. For example, the term “nontraditional” is used to describe students, but students who are deemed nontraditional in universities are traditional in community college settings. Secondly, it is clear teachers involve in the process of reflection, must a achieve e level of expertness.
Finally, as it was mentioned in the very beginning, a discourse community is a group of people. However, not any group of people is a discourse community. Swales (1990) mentioned a group of aspects or basic criteria that a discourse community should share in order to be so.
References:
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
But, what special characteristics must a discourse community have? Is any group of experts a discourse community? Swales (1990) answered these questions by recognizing some basic criteria, which serves to test any community and decide whether the group of people belongs to a discourse community or not.
Swales’ (1990) basic criteria points out that a discourse community should share specific interests or goals. Aims are various, for example the purposes of a course for teachers is to provide teachers with the confidence to connect their actions in the classrooms to research – informed practices and to make them aware of the importance of a collaborative culture (Mclaughin &Talbert, 1993; Regan-Smith, 1994), in other words, learn from one another.
The second and third aspects that a community must share are a participatory mechanism and information exchange. In UCLA community, where a scholarship of teachers is sought, the publication and research as well as the engagement in sharing and applying information are crucial mechanism for the acquisition of the goal. This community defines publications as the main genre, or the community specific genre, which is the fourth aspect that Swales (1990) presents.
As regards the fifth and sixth aspects, members should use highly specialized terminology, what shows their high general level of expertise. Firstly, as it is explained in the open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators (Community College Review, Summer, 2001 by Christine Kelly-Kleese), the community college adopts language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community. For example, the term “nontraditional” is used to describe students, but students who are deemed nontraditional in universities are traditional in community college settings. Secondly, it is clear teachers involve in the process of reflection, must a achieve e level of expertness.
Finally, as it was mentioned in the very beginning, a discourse community is a group of people. However, not any group of people is a discourse community. Swales (1990) mentioned a group of aspects or basic criteria that a discourse community should share in order to be so.
References:
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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